Selasa, 10 April 2012

Pronouns

A pronoun is used in place of a noun or nouns. Common pronouns include he, her, him, I, it, me, she, them, they, us, and we. Here are some examples:
INSTEAD OF: Luma is a good athlete.
She is a good athlete. (The pronoun she replaces Luma.)
INSTEAD OF: The beans and tomatoes are fresh-picked.
They are fresh-picked. (The pronoun they replaces the beans and tomatoes.)
Often a pronoun takes the place of a particular noun. This noun is known as the antecedent. A pronoun "refers to," or directs your thoughts toward, its antecedent.
Let's call Luma and ask her to join the team. (Her is a pronoun;Luma is its antecedent.)
To find a pronoun's antecedent, ask yourself what that pronoun refers to. What does her refer to in the sentence above—that is, who is the her? The her in the sentence is Luma; therefore, Luma is the antecedent.
Subjective Pronouns

A subjective pronoun acts as the subject of a sentence—it performs the action of the verb. The subjective pronouns arehe, I, it, she, they, we, and you.
He spends ages looking out the window.
After lunch, she and I went to the planetarium.
Objective Pronouns
An objective pronoun acts as the object of a sentence—it receives the action of the verb. The objective pronouns are her, him, it, me, them, us, and you.
Cousin Eldred gave me a trombone.
Take a picture of him, not us!
Possessive Pronouns
A possessive pronoun tells you who owns something. The possessive pronouns are hers, his, its, mine, ours, theirs, and yours.
The red basket is mine.
Yours is on the coffee table.
Demonstrative Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun points out a noun. The demonstrative pronouns arethat, these, this, and those.
That is a good idea.
These are hilarious cartoons.
A demonstrative pronoun may look like a demonstrative adjective, but it is used differently in a sentence: it acts as a pronoun, taking the place of a noun.
Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is used in a question. It helps to ask about something. The interrogative pronouns are what, which, who, whom, and compound words ending in "ever," such as whatever, whichever, whoever, and whomever.
What on earth is that?
Who ate the last Fig Newton?
An interrogative pronoun may look like an interrogative adjective, but it is used differently in a sentence: it acts as a pronoun, taking the place of a noun.
Indefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun refers to an indefinite, or general, person or thing. Indefinite pronouns include all, any, both, each, everyone, few, many, neither, none, nothing, several, some, and somebody.
Something smells good.
Many like salsa with their chips.
An indefinite pronoun may look like an indefinite adjective, but it is used differently in a sentence: it acts as a pronoun, taking the place of a noun.
Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun introduces a clause, or part of a sentence, that describes a noun. The relative pronouns are that, which, who, and whom.
You should bring the book that you love most.
That introduces "you love most," which describes the book.
Hector is a photographer who does great work.
Who introduces "does great work," which describes Hector.
Reflexive Pronouns
A reflexive pronoun refers back to the subject of a sentence. The reflexive pronouns are herself, himself, itself, myself, ourselves, themselves, andyourselves. Each of these words can also act as an intensive pronoun (see below).
I learned a lot about myself at summer camp. (Myself refers back to I.)
They should divide the berries among themselves. (Themselvesrefers back to they.)
Intensive Pronouns
An intensive pronoun emphasizes its antecedent (the noun that comes before it). The intensive pronouns are herself, himself, itself, myself, ourselves, themselves,  and yourselves.  Each of these words can also act as a reflective pronoun (see above).
myself don't like eggs.
The queen herself visited our class.

INFINITIVE

Definition: Infinitive is the base form of the verb. The infinitive form of a verb is the form which follows "to".
For example:
·  (to) go, (to) be,(to) ask, (to) fight, (to) understand, (to) walk .
Infinitives may occur with or without the infinitive marker "to". Infinitives without "to" are known as "bare infinitives".
For example:
·  Help me open the door.
OTHER FORMS
The infinitive can have the following forms:
1.    The perfect infinitive
to have + past participle

For example: to have broken, to have seen, to have saved.
This form is most commonly found in Type 3 conditional sentences, using the conditional perfect.
 

For example:
§  If I had known you were coming I would have baked a cake.
§  Someone must have broken the window and climbed in.
§  I would like to have seen the Taj Mahal when I was in India.
§  He pretended to have seen the film.
§  If I'd seen the ball I would have caught it.

2.    The continuous infinitive
to be + present participle

For example: to be swimming, to be joking, to be waiting

Examples:
§  I'd really like to be swimming in a nice cool pool right now.
§  You must be joking!
§  I happened to be waiting for the bus when the accident happened.

3.    The perfect continuous infinitive
to have been + present participle

Examples: to have been crying, to have been waiting, to have been painting

Examples:
§  The woman seemed to have been crying.
§  You must have been waiting for hours!
§  He pretended to have been painting all day.
4.    The passive infinitive
to be + past participle

For example: to be given, to be shut, to be opened

Examples:
§  I am expecting to be given a pay-rise next month.
§  These doors should be shut.
§  This window ought to be opened.
NOTE: As with the present infinitive, there are situations where the "to" is omitted.
Examples
  • He claimed to be an expert.
  • I managed to reach the top of the hill.
  • Don't pretend that you know the answer.
  • She failed to explain the problem clearly.
  • The customs man demanded to search our luggage.
  • I can't afford to go out tonight.
Sumber : http://www.englishlanguageguide.com/english/grammar/infinitive.asp

Conjunctions

Conjunctions

Definition

Some words are satisfied spending an evening at home, alone, eating ice-cream right out of the box, watching Seinfeld re-runs on TV, or reading a good book. Others aren't happy unless they're out on the town, mixing it up with other words; they're joiners and they just can't help themselves. A conjunction is a joiner, a word that connects (conjoins) parts of a sentence.

Coordinating Conjunctions

The simple, little conjunctions are called coordinating conjunctions (you can click on the words to see specific descriptions of each one):
Coordinating Conjunctions

(It may help you remember these conjunctions by recalling that they all have fewer than four letters. Also, remember the acronym FANBOYS:For-And-Nor-But-Or-Yet-So. Be careful of the words then and now; neither is a coordinating conjunction, so what we say about coordinating conjunctions' roles in a sentence and punctuation does not apply to those two words.)
When a coordinating conjunction connects two independent clauses, it is often (but not always) accompanied by a comma:
·         Ulysses wants to play for UConn, but he has had trouble meeting the academic requirements.
When the two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction are nicely balanced or brief, many writers will omit the comma:
·         Ulysses has a great jump shot but he isn't quick on his feet.
The comma is always correct when used to separate two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction. See Punctuation Between Two Independent Clauses for further help.
A comma is also correct when and is used to attach the last item of a serial list, although many writers (especially in newspapers) will omit that final comma:
·         Ulysses spent his summer studying basic math, writing, and reading comprehension.
When a coordinating conjunction is used to connect all the elements in a series, a comma is not used:
·         Presbyterians and Methodists and Baptists are the prevalent Protestant congregations in Oklahoma.
A comma is also used with but when expressing a contrast:
·         This is a useful rule, but difficult to remember.
In most of their other roles as joiners (other than joining independent clauses, that is), coordinating conjunctions can join two sentence elements without the help of a comma.
·         Hemingway and Fitzgerald are among the American expatriates of the between-the-wars era.
·         Hemingway was renowned for his clear style and his insights into American notions of male identity.
·         It is hard to say whether Hemingway or Fitzgerald is the more interesting cultural icon of his day.
·         Although Hemingway is sometimes disparaged for his unpleasant portrayal of women and for his glorification of machismo, we nonetheless find some sympathetic, even heroic, female figures in his novels and short stories.

Beginning a Sentence with And or But

A frequently asked question about conjunctions is whether and or but can be used at the beginning of a sentence. This is what R.W. Burchfield has to say about this use of and:
There is a persistent belief that it is improper to begin a sentence with And, but this prohibition has been cheerfully ignored by standard authors from Anglo-Saxon times onwards. An initial And is a useful aid to writers as the narrative continues.
from The New Fowler's Modern English Usage 
edited by R.W. Burchfield. Clarendon Press: Oxford, England. 1996. 
Used with the permission of Oxford University Press.
The same is true with the conjunction but. A sentence beginning with and or but will tend to draw attention to itself and its transitional function. Writers should examine such sentences with two questions in mind: (1) would the sentence and paragraph function just as well without the initial conjunction? (2) should the sentence in question be connected to the previous sentence? If the initial conjunction still seems appropriate, use it.
Among the coordinating conjunctions, the most common, of course, are and, but, and or. It might be helpful to explore the uses of these three little words. The examples below by no means exhaust the possible meanings of these conjunctions.
AND
a.      To suggest that one idea is chronologically sequential to another: "Tashonda sent in her applications and waited by the phone for a response."
b.      To suggest that one idea is the result of another: "Willie heard the weather report and promptly boarded up his house."
c.       To suggest that one idea is in contrast to another (frequently replaced by but in this usage): "Juanita is brilliant and Shalimar has a pleasant personality.
d.      To suggest an element of surprise (sometimes replaced by yet in this usage): "Hartford is a rich city and suffers from many symptoms of urban blight."
e.      To suggest that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally (usually the first clause is an imperative): "Use your credit cards frequently and you'll soon find yourself deep in debt."
f.        To suggest a kind of "comment" on the first clause: "Charlie became addicted to gambling — and that surprised no one who knew him."

BUT
a.      To suggest a contrast that is unexpected in light of the first clause: "Joey lost a fortune in the stock market, but he still seems able to live quite comfortably."
b.      To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first part of the sentence implied in a negative way (sometimes replaced by on the contrary): "The club never invested foolishly, but used the services of a sage investment counselor."
c.       To connect two ideas with the meaning of "with the exception of" (and then the second word takes over as subject): "Everybody butGoldenbreath is trying out for the team."
OR
a.      To suggest that only one possibility can be realized, excluding one or the other: "You can study hard for this exam or you can fail."
b.      To suggest the inclusive combination of alternatives: "We can broil chicken on the grill tonight, or we can just eat leftovers.
c.       To suggest a refinement of the first clause: "Smith College is the premier all-women's college in the country, or so it seems to most Smith College alumnae."
d.      To suggest a restatement or "correction" of the first part of the sentence: "There are no rattlesnakes in this canyon, or so our guide tells us."
e.      To suggest a negative condition: "The New Hampshire state motto is the rather grim "Live free or die."
f.        To suggest a negative alternative without the use of an imperative (see use of and above): "They must approve his political styleor they wouldn't keep electing him mayor."
Authority used for this section on the uses of and, but, and or: A University Grammar of English by Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum. Longman Group: Essex, England. 1993. Used with permission. Examples our own.
The Others . . .
The conjunction NOR is not extinct, but it is not used nearly as often as the other conjunctions, so it might feel a bit odd when nor does come up in conversation or writing. Its most common use is as the little brother in the correlative pair, neither-nor (see below):
·         He is neither sane nor brilliant.
·         That is neither what I said nor what I meant.
>It can be used with other negative expressions:
·         That is not what I meant to say, nor should you interpret my statement as an admission of guilt.
It is possible to use nor without a preceding negative element, but it is unusual and, to an extent, rather stuffy:
·         George's handshake is as good as any written contract, nor has he ever proven untrustworthy.
The word YET functions sometimes as an adverb and has several meanings: in addition ("yet another cause of trouble" or "a simple yet noble woman"), even ("yet more expensive"), still ("he is yet a novice"), eventually ("they may yet win"), and so soon as now ("he's not here yet"). It also functions as a coordinating conjunction meaning something like "nevertheless" or "but." The word yet seems to carry an element of distinctiveness thatbut can seldom register.
·         John plays basketball well, yet his favorite sport is badminton.
·         The visitors complained loudly about the heat, yet they continued to play golf every day.
In sentences such as the second one, above, the pronoun subject of the second clause ("they," in this case) is often left out. When that happens, the comma preceding the conjunction might also disappear: "The visitors complained loudly yet continued to play golf every day."
Yet is sometimes combined with other conjunctions, but or and. It would not be unusual to see and yet in sentences like the ones above. This usage is acceptable.
The word FOR is most often used as a preposition, of course, but it does serve, on rare occasions, as a coordinating conjunction. Some people regard the conjunction for as rather highfalutin and literary, and it does tend to add a bit of weightiness to the text. Beginning a sentence with the conjunction "for" is probably not a good idea, except when you're singing "For he's a jolly good fellow. "For" has serious sequential implications and in its use the order of thoughts is more important than it is, say, with because or since. Its function is to introduce the reason for the preceding clause:
·         John thought he had a good chance to get the job, for his father was on the company's board of trustees.
·         Most of the visitors were happy just sitting around in the shade, for it had been a long, dusty journey on the train.
Be careful of the conjunction SO. Sometimes it can connect two independent clauses along with a comma, but sometimes it can't. For instance, in this sentence,
·         Soto is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his brother, sister, and his Uncle Chet.
where the word so means "as well" or "in addition," most careful writers would use a semicolon between the two independent clauses. In the following sentence, where so is acting like a minor-league "therefore," the conjunction and the comma are adequate to the task:
·         Soto has always been nervous in large gatherings, so it is no surprise that he avoids crowds of his adoring fans.
Sometimes, at the beginning of a sentence, so will act as a kind of summing up device or transition, and when it does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma:
·         So, the sheriff peremptorily removed the child from the custody of his parents.

Subordinating Conjunctions

A Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word or subordinator) comes at the beginning of a Subordinate (or Dependent) Clause and establishes the relationship between the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence. It also turns the clause into something that depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning.
·         He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his life.
·         Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the movies.
·         Unless we act now, all is lost.
Notice that some of the subordinating conjunctions in the table below — after, before, since — are also prepositions, but as subordinators they are being used to introduce a clause and to subordinate the following clause to the independent element in the sentence.

Common Subordinating Conjunctions

after
although
as
as if
as long as
as though
because
before
even if
even though
if
if only
in order that
now that
once
rather than
since
so that
than
that
though
till
unless
until
when
whenever
where
whereas
wherever
while

The Case of Like and As

Strictly speaking, the word like is a preposition, not a conjunction. It can, therefore, be used to introduce a prepositional phrase ("My brother is tall like my father"), but it should not be used to introduce a clause ("My brother can't play the piano like as he did before the accident" or "It looks like as if basketball is quickly overtaking baseball as America's national sport."). To introduce a clause, it's a good idea to use as, as though, or as if, instead.
·         Like As I told you earlier, the lecture has been postponed.
·         It looks like as if it's going to snow this afternoon.
·         Johnson kept looking out the window like as though he had someone waiting for him.
In formal, academic text, it's a good idea to reserve the use of like for situations in which similarities are being pointed out:
·         This community college is like a two-year liberal arts college.
However, when you are listing things that have similarities, such as is probably more suitable:
·         The college has several highly regarded neighbors, like such as the Mark Twain House, St. Francis Hospital, the Connecticut Historical Society, and the UConn Law School.

Omitting That

The word that is used as a conjunction to connect a subordinate clause to a preceding verb. In this construction that is sometimes called the "expletive that." Indeed, the word is often omitted to good effect, but the very fact of easy omission causes some editors to take out the red pen and strike out the conjunction that wherever it appears. In the following sentences, we can happily omit the that (or keep it, depending on how the sentence sounds to us):
·         Isabel knew [that] she was about to be fired.
·         She definitely felt [that] her fellow employees hadn't supported her.
·         I hope [that] she doesn't blame me.
Sometimes omitting the that creates a break in the flow of a sentence, a break that can be adequately bridged with the use of a comma:
·         The problem is, that production in her department has dropped.
·         Remember, that we didn't have these problems before she started working here.
As a general rule, if the sentence feels just as good without the that, if no ambiguity results from its omission, if the sentence is more efficient or elegant without it, then we can safely omit the that. Theodore Bernstein lists three conditions in which we should maintain the conjunction that:
·         When a time element intervenes between the verb and the clause: "The boss said yesterday that production in this department was down fifty percent." (Notice the position of "yesterday.")
·         When the verb of the clause is long delayed: "Our annual report revealed that some losses sustained by this department in the third quarter of last year were worse than previously thought." (Notice the distance between the subject "losses" and its verb, "were.")
·         When a second that can clear up who said or did what: "The CEO said that Isabel's department was slacking off and that production dropped precipitously in the fourth quarter." (Did the CEO say that production dropped or was the drop a result of what he said about Isabel's department? The second that makes the sentence clear.)
Authority for this section: Dos, Don'ts & Maybes of English Usage by Theodore Bernstein. Gramercy Books: New York. 1999. p. 217. Examples our own.

Beginning a Sentence with Because

Somehow, the notion that one should not begin a sentence with the subordinating conjunction becauseretains a mysterious grip on people's sense of writing proprieties. This might come about because a sentence that begins with because could well end up a fragment if one is not careful to follow up the "because clause" with an independent clause.
·         Because e-mail now plays such a huge role in our communications industry.
When the "because clause" is properly subordinated to another idea (regardless of the position of the clause in the sentence), there is absolutely nothing wrong with it:
·         Because e-mail now plays such a huge role in our communications industry, the postal service would very much like to see it taxed in some manner.

Correlative Conjunctions

Some conjunctions combine with other words to form what are called correlative conjunctions. They always travel in pairs, joining various sentence elements that should be treated as grammatically equal.
·         She led the team not only in statistics but also by virtue of her enthusiasm.
·         Polonius said, "Neither a borrower nor a lender be."
·         Whether you win this race or lose it doesn't matter as long as you do your best.
Correlative conjunctions sometimes create problems in parallel form. Click HERE for help with those problems. Here is a brief list of common correlative conjunctions.

both . . . and
not only . . . but also
not . . . but
either . . . or
neither . . . nor
whether . . . or
as . . . as

Conjunctive Adverbs

The conjunctive adverbs such as however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently, as a result are used to create complex relationships between ideas. Refer to the section on Coherence: Transitions Between Ideas for an extensive list of conjunctive adverbs categorized according to their various uses and for some advice on their application within sentences (including punctuation issues).